The Civil Rights movement was a struggle for social justice against racial discrimination and oppression, particularly in the Southern United States in the 1950s and 1960s. African Americans in the South endured the devastating impacts of racism, slavery, prejudice, and violence, leading to the emergence of the Civil Rights movements[1]. Consequently, Black Civil Rights activists, such as Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr, mobilized and began the extraordinary fight for social justice and equality. The movements integrated non-violent protests and boycotts to pressure the government to act against social injustices. Different Civil Rights legislations and activists influenced the socio-economic and political lives of African Americans in the United States by the 1960s.
Role of Civil Rights Activists
The actions and activities of Civil Rights activists, such as Tom Kahn, Malcolm X, and Martin Luther King Jr, influenced important changes during the struggle. For instance, while King advocated for non-violent actions and self-respect towards social justice struggles and integration, Malcolm X agitated for segregationist approaches[2]. Despite their ideological differences, they both emphasized the need for racial pride and the socio-economic empowerment of African Americans. Tom Kahn was also an American social democrat who was an influential strategist in the Civil Rights movement. The activists organized and led peaceful protests and boycotts on various social justice issues[3]. For instance, the Montgomery bus boycott in Alabama was a political and social protest campaign organized by activists such as Martin Luther King against racial segregation policy on the public transit system.
Important Constitutional Amendments
Crucial legislation such as the 14th Amendment (1868) and the 15thAmendment (1870) Acts of the United States Constitution helped shape the Civil Rights era. The 14th Amendment gave African Americans equal rights of protection under the constitution, while the 15th Amendment gave them the right to universal suffrage[4]. These laws aimed to break the cycle of marginalization that separated Black people from the majority white population.
The 1954 Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education
The 1954 decision by the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Brown v. Board of Education marked an important milestone in the Civil Rights struggles. In this case, the U.S. Supreme Court held that the racial segregation of children in public schools was a violation of Black citizens’ constitutional rights to fair treatment. The Court’s decision also dismantled the repressive Jim Crow laws in the South, which legalized racial discrimination, especially in the South[5]. Consequently, schools, such as Central High in Little Rock, Arkansas, began to administer students from all-Black high schools. The 1954 decision by the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Brown v. Board of Education revealed an urgent need to address racial segregation in America.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and 1957
African Americans continued to face racial discrimination and oppression even though they had gained the right to vote, among other constitutional rights and privileges. President John F. Kennedy’s administration first proposed the Act in 1964, thus ending segregation in public places, as well as banning employment discrimination based on racial or religious affiliation[6]. However, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law, further minimizing racial tensions and protests in the southern states[7]. Consequently, the new law recommended the federal prosecution of any person attempting to prevent African Americans from voting and enjoying other basic fundamental rights[8]. The Act also created a commission of inquiry to investigate allegations of voter fraud and related offenses.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Civil Rights activists such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Bayard Rustin forced the ratification of different legislations in America. For instance, the success of the ‘March on Washington’ event led by King and other civil rights activists forced different Presidents to ratify necessary Acts to maintain law and order[9]. For instance, the pressure from the Civil Rights movements forced President Lyndon B. Johnson to ratify the Voting Rights Act of 1965, eliminating legal barriers to voting at the state and local levels. The law allowed the U.S. Attorney General to challenge the legality of certain repressive policies such as state and local poll taxes. Other consequences of the acts included the limited application of voter literacy tests and the proper integration of public facilities[10]. The expansion of the political space facilitated the election of Black political leaders, such as Mayor Andrew Young of Atlanta and Representative Barbara Jordan from Texas.
The Fair Housing Act of 1968
President Johnson’s administration signed the last legislation of the civil rights era (Fair Housing Act) into law days after the assassination of a Black activist, Martin Luther King. The law criminalized housing discrimination based on racial, sexual, or religious affiliation[11]. The law also prohibited any form of discrimination on the sale, rental, and financing of housing projects in Black communities.
The Civil Rights era was indeed an empowering yet uncertain time for African Americans. Efforts by different Civil Rights activists and leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, and the numerous protests and boycotts influenced the ratification of various laws. Legislations, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and 1957 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, ended segregation, African American voter suppression, and discriminatory employment and housing practices. Overall, most of these changes during the Civil Rights movement era guaranteed equal access to basic fundamental rights and protection under the law.
Bibliography
History Matters. “The Right to Housing Is a Civil Right Due without Discrimination.” http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6900/
History Matters. “The Rights of All Must Be Secured, or the Rights of None Will Be Secure: Arguments for Federal Civil Rights Legislation (1949-1950).” http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6338
History Matters. “Democracy Can’t Live in These Houses: Senator Paul Douglas Advocates a Federal Housing Program to Clear Slum Areas (1949).” http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6900
Kahn, Tom, Asa Philip Randolph, and Michael Harrington. The economics of equality. New York: League for industrial democracy, 1964. https://www.crmvet.org/docs/kahn-economics-equality-pamphlet.pdf
Locke, Joseph L., and Ben Wright, eds. The American Yawp: A Massively Collaborative Open U.S. History Textbook, Vol. 1: To 1877. Stanford University Press, 2019. http://www.americanyawp.com/
Malcolm X, “1963 Berkeley Interview.” YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZMrti8QcPA
Martin Luther King. “1967 NBC News Interview.” YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xsbt3a7K-8
[1] Kahn, Tom, Asa Philip Randolph, and Michael Harrington. The economics of equality. New York: League for industrial democracy, 1964. https://www.crmvet.org/docs/kahn-economics-equality-pamphlet.pdf
[2] Malcolm X “1963 Berkeley Interview.” YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZMrti8QcPA
[3] Martin Luther King. “1967 NBC News Interview.” YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xsbt3a7K-8
[4] Locke, Joseph L., and Ben Wright, eds. The American Yawp: A Massively Collaborative Open U.S. History Textbook, Vol. 1: To 1877. Stanford University Press, 2019. http://www.americanyawp.com/
[5] Ibid, 356
[6] Kahn, Tom, Asa Philip Randolph, and Michael Harrington. The economics of equality. New York: League for industrial democracy, 1964. https://www.crmvet.org/docs/kahn-economics-equality-pamphlet.pdf
[7] History Matters. “The Rights of All Must Be Secured, or the Rights of None Will Be Secure: Arguments for Federal Civil Rights Legislation (1949-1950).” http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6338
[8] History Matters. “Democracy Can’t Live in These Houses: Senator Paul Douglas Advocates a Federal Housing Program to Clear Slum Areas (1949).” http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6900
[9] Kahn, Tom, Asa Philip Randolph, and Michael Harrington. The economics of equality. New York: League for industrial democracy, 1964. https://www.crmvet.org/docs/kahn-economics-equality-pamphlet.pdf
[10] Ibid, 15
[11] History Matters. “The Right to Housing Is a Civil Right Due without Discrimination.” http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6900/